This week, our travels through the archaeology of Pennsylvania’s counties take us to Indiana County located in the western-central region of the state. We have the privilege of introducing the newest member of our staff, Callista Holmes. Calli joined our staff in early November as a lab assistant. She is a graduate of Clarion University of Pennsylvania and is enrolled in the Master’s program in Applied Archaeology at Indiana University of Pennsylvania For this blog, she solicited help from her former adviser, Dr. Beverly Chiarulli.
As part of the Pittsburgh/Laurel Highlands
area, the landscape is characterized by narrow, shallow valleys and numerous
water sources. The county is primarily within the Ohio Drainage Basin but the eastern
edge is drained by the West Branch of the Susquehanna River. The main rivers include
the Conemaugh, the Redbank and the Kiskiminetas. Many of these rivers and
creeks have large flood plains, which offer prime locations for prehistoric and
historic sites. Indiana County contains a relatively high density of
archaeological sites at 1 site per 1.85 square miles with a total of 448
recorded sites.
Much of Indiana County is underlain by
Pennsylvania age (290–323 million years) sedimentary
rocks including sandstone, shale, siltstone, limestone and coal formations (Williams and McElroy 1997; Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources 1990). The main lithic resources for the manufacture of stone tools are
chert. Some of the more local sources include Monongahela, Uniontown and Ten
Mile cherts, while the sources further away include Onondaga, Upper Mercer and
Flint Ridge.
The geology of Indiana County also
includes rich deposits of coal, which led to the significant coal industry in
Indiana County and much of western Pennsylvania. A large number of strip mines and
small towns supporting the mines dotted the landscape of Indiana County from
the early nineteenth century through much of the twentieth century (Indiana
University of Pennsylvania Libraries). Today
many of the towns that were built around the coal mining industry have gone
into decline, but the development of these mines and towns, as well as the hard
work of Indiana County coal miners have led to overall development of the
county.
Since 2000, Drs. Beverly Chiarulli and Sarah Neusius of
the Indiana University of Pennsylvania Anthropology Department have
investigated Late Prehistoric Period sites (A.D. 1000‐1500) in Indiana and
surrounding counties. The Late Prehistoric or Late Woodland period was the time
when Native groups in Pennsylvania established villages and began to grow crops
such as maize (corn), beans, and squash as the mainstay of their diet. While
past archaeological research suggested that the central Allegheny River Valley
(including Indiana County) was uninhabited during this time period, the
investigations by IUP archaeologists have found there were a large number of
villages in this region along the tributaries of the Allegheny River (Johnson
1999, 2001; Chiarulli and Neusius 2007).
In the three tributary watersheds that cross Indiana County (the
Conemaugh‐Blacklick,
Loyalhanna‐Blackleggs
Creek, and Crooked Creek) there are more than 40 known villages. In all of western Pennsylvania, there are only 200
recorded villages, so 20% of the Late Prehistoric villages are in this small
part of the Commonwealth.
The
goals of the IUP Late Prehistoric Project have been to reconstruct these Late
Prehistoric settlement systems. It is
often difficult to envision how Pennsylvania looked a thousand years ago,
because the landscape today is so different from what it was in the past. Dense forests covered western Pennsylvania
before the arrival of European settlers in the 1760s. Today, most of these forests have disappeared
as they have been cut down to create space for farms, towns and cities. These forests have disappeared, except in the
descriptions of these early settlers and today, for example, only 36 percent of
Indiana County is covered by stands of second and third growth forest.
One
interesting part of this research has focused on the different Late Prehistoric
cultures in the northern and southern part of the county. The villages in southern Indiana County in
the Conemaugh-Blacklick watershed are part of the Monongahela culture found
throughout southwestern Pennsylvania.
The villages in the northern part of the county in the Crooked Creek
watershed are part of a different cultural group. In both areas, the villages consist of
stockade surrounding a ring of houses and a large open central plaza. The main differences in the groups are in the
different types of pottery they made. In
the Crooked Creek watershed, most of the IUP investigations have focused on the
Mary Rinn site and the Carl Fleming site.
In the Conemaugh watershed, we have examined the Johnston site, the
Walnut Hill site (36In0006), and the Squirrel Hill site (on the south side of
the Conemaugh River in Westmoreland County).
Typical
Monongahela Tradition Village Shape and Layout (From Powell Site)
The
Mary Rinn Site in the Crooked Creek Watershed
The Mary Rinn Site was investigated in the 1970s and
1980s by field schools from IUP directed by Virginia Gerald and in 2000 by Drs.
Sarah and Phil Neusius. Recent
investigations have been conducted by Graduate Student Donna Smith who has
included a ground penetrating radar survey of the site as part of her Masters
Thesis research. The site is located on
a terrace along Crooked Creek. In the
early IUP field schools, Gerald identified a possible house, a stockade, and other
post enclosed features.
One advantage of conducting research at a university
that has been interested in the local archaeology is that we have access to
artifacts that were collected in the 1970s and 1980s. During the past several years, we have been
able to reanalyze these collections and even send samples for botanical analysis
and radiocarbon dating. Before the start
of the Late Prehistoric Project, none of the sites in Indiana County had been
dated. Now, we have more than 60
standard and AMS dates from these sites and those from the surrounding
counties.
IUP
Students Mapping the Mary Rinn Site
For the Mary Rinn Site, we continued our
investigations of the collection curated at IUP by sending flotation samples
from some of Gerald’s features and those from Smith’s investigations to Dr.
Jack Rossen of Ithaca College for analyses.
One of the samples he analysed was made of the remains of branches used
as firewood and was primarily white oak, hickory, maple (Acer sp.), and black walnut (Juglans
nigra), This sample also contained two tropical domesticates (maize and
gourd) and also included seeds of two possible species from the Eastern
Agricultural Complex, marshelder and maygrass as well as seeds from wild
plants, sumac and purslane and hickory nuts.
The Eastern Agricultural Complex includes native plants from the upper
Ohio Valley that were domesticated.
Maize, beans, tobacco, and gourds are considered “tropical” domesticates
because they are native to Mexico and were first domesticated there and then
spread throughout North America.
Donna
Smith Excavating at the Mary Rinn Site (October 2011)
According to Rossen (May 2009) marshelder is a plant
with nutritious oily seeds that has a long history of utilization throughout
the eastern U.S. woodlands (Asch and
Asch 1985; Yarnell 1978). It came under cultivation sometime during the Late
Archaic or Early Woodland period, as indicated by gradual but large increases
in seed length and its archaeological occurrence in large caches (Yarnell
1978). After A.D. 1000, marshelder was still
used by some groups in the Midwest and eastern US. Since the Mary Rinn sample is far outside the
plant’s natural range it should be considered a cultivated specimen.
We now have four dates for the
Mary Rinn Site (. One was from the 2000
IUP Field School, two are standard dates from features excavated by Gerald
(F211 and F227) and one is an AMS date of a maize sample from the botanical
analysis. The maize date is the most recent and dates to approximately A.D.
1250. This date overlaps with the other
three from the site, although it is at the end of their range. While it is the latest date from Mary Rinn,
it is the earliest date on maize that we have from any of the Late Prehistoric
project sites.
Mary
Rinn ceramics are predominately limestone tempered although there is also grit
and quartz tempered examples. IUP now has the collections from Gerald’s
investigations as well as a large collection known as the Boyer collection that
was donated to the university by a local collector in the 1960s. Rims are
commonly straight and decorations can include incisions and punctuations. Incisions can be straight, horizontal or
oblique lines.
Ceramic
Vessel from the Mary Rinn Site
Investigations
of the Johnston Site (36In002) in the Conemaugh Watershed
The Johnston site is located on the first terrace of the
Conemaugh River south of Blairsville, Indiana County, Pennsylvania. Discovered by Ralph Solecki of the
Smithsonian River Basin Survey in October 1950 in advance of the construction
of the Conemaugh Dam, this site was quickly recognized as an important Late
Prehistoric, Monongahela village.
Excavations by Dr. Don Dragoo of the Carnegie Museum in 1952 revealed
two to four parallel stockades encircling a village which measured
approximately 450 feet in diameter.
Circular house structures averaging 20 feet across with and without
attached storage structures were found in a ring around a central plaza typical
of Monongahela Villages (Means 2007).
Large quantities of shell-tempered
ceramics, lithic artifacts, many bone tools especially bone beads, cannel coal objects, discoidals, faunal
remains and other artifacts were recovered in these excavations (Dragoo 1956,
Guilday 1956 ). Dragoo’s assemblages are
curated at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History.
Dragoo estimated that 150-225 individuals lived at this
village, and determined that the village was primarily occupied in the late
sixteenth century. Subsequent studies of
Dragoo’s Johnston ceramic assemblage along with materials from the McJunkin
site led to the identification of a Late Middle Monongahela Johnston Phase
dating from ca AD 1450-1590 (George 1977; Johnson and Means 2007). The primary defining characteristic of this
phase is the presence of McFate Incised ware and Conemaugh Cord-Impressed
sherds among typical Monongahela ceramic types.
Unlike other Monongahela Tradition ceramic assemblages, high frequencies
of the Johnston sherds are believed to have been marked with final S-twist
cordage. Some discussions have suggested
that the Johnston Phase represents an amalgamation
of “McFate people” and “Mononghaela people” (Johnson 2001: 71-72) and even that
one portion of the village at Johnston might have been where McFate as opposed
to people of Monongahela ethnicity actually resided (George 1997).
As part of the IUP Late Prehistoric Project, Chiarulli
and Neusius wanted to document the location of the Johnston site, and their
investigations found that it was intact, with the old plowzone encountered by
Dragoo buried under nearly one meter of recent alluvium. These alluvial deposits apparently are the
result of flood episodes since the construction of the Conemaugh dam. The initial test pits dug in 2005 yielded the
first radiocarbon date from the site.
This date (Beta 206279) was 630 +
40 BP or Cal AD 1290-1410, was substantially earlier than the presumed late
sixteenth century date for the site as well as earlier than the defined
beginning of the Johnston Phase. While
analysis of the 2012 field season is still underway, the 2010 fieldschool has
lead to an increased understanding of the site.
Photo of 2010 IUP Field School Excavations (Photo by
Seth Mitchell)
The
IUP 2010 Investigations
The 2010 field school included eight weeks of excavation
between May and July, 2010. We have
completed a preliminary catalogue of the 2010 artifacts, finished flotation of
most of the feature samples, obtained additional AMS radiocarbon dates, and had additional botanical samples analyzed
by Dr. Jack Rossen of Ithaca College.
Two graduate students have complete MA theses on analysis of material
from the Johnston site. Seth Mitchell
(2011) analyzed rimsherds from all the IUP investigations and compared these to
Dragoo’s published material and Lisa Dugas (2011) analyzed bone tools from the
site for a comparison of assemblages from other Monongahela villages. Current MA student, Laura Kaufman, is
comparing the condition of faunal material from the IUP and Dragoo excavations
to determine if the material has deteriorated during the past 50 years for her
thesis. Two undergraduate honors theses
have also used material from the Johnston investigations. Michael Deemer (2012) investigated the use of
heat treatment of chert at the site through a comparison of experimentally
heated samples and Jordon Galentine (2012) compared rim styles from the
Johnston site with sites in the Crooked Creek watershed.
Dragoo’s
excavations at the Johnston Site
The
2010 excavations, to the east of the 2008 block, traced the easternmost of the
two stockades we had previously identified as well as the stockade trench to
the southeast This stockade is now
identified as Stockade 1(it was the first stockade identified) and the stockade
line to the west of this is designated Stockade 2. Most importantly, the units to the east of
Stockade 1 encountered a large number of features including many post molds and
possible house structures. Excavations
approximately a meter to the east of Stockade 1 documented a third line of
posts, which, though small, may represent a third stockade line. This newly
discovered stockade is designated as Stockade 3. A recent analysis of AMS and standard
radiocarbon dates from the stockades suggests that stockades 1 and 2 may date
as early as the Kiskimentas Phase of the Early Monongahela Period (A.D.
1150-1290) while
Stockade 3 dates to the Middle Monongahela Johnston Phase (Neusius and
Chiaurlli 2012).
Comparison
of Dragoo’s excavations and IUP 2008 Excavations (note the increase in
deposition covering the site Dragoo photos courtesy of the Carnegie Museum of
Natural History)
We were not able to investigate the western portion of
the village during the 2010 field school.
However, in the fall of 2010, Seth Mitchell, one of the graduate
students initiated investigations of the western side of the village by
excavating four shovel tests based on the results of Sagi’s (2009) highest
phosphate and magnetic susceptibility readings.
These appeared to correlate with the location of the domestic ring on
the western edge of the village plaza.
This approach proved productive and one of the initial shovel tests
encountered obvious features beneath the alluvium. This shovel test pit was expanded to a two meter
square which revealed a number of postholes and one side of a post enclosed
pit. Botanical analysis of material from a flotation sample from this feature
(FT 244) has been completed, and a single fourteenth century AMS date obtained
from a maize kernel was obtained.
Mitchell’s (2011) results provide us with an indication
of the location of the western side of the village. Several lines of evidence suggest that there
are differences between the material we have recovered and the Dragoo ceramic
sample. Mitchell’s analysis examined
only the rim sherds and identified 169 individual vessels. He found that the ceramic types in the IUP
assemblage are generally consistent with Dragoo’s sample with a few significant
differences. The major difference is that
some of the Middle and Early Woodland and the distinctive McFate Incised types
are not present in the IUP sample.
Mitchell suggests that the difference could result from a later
occupation in the western part of the village.
lower left image: Monongahela house reconstruction on City Island by PHMC
Site
Dating
New dates from
the IUP investigations continue to differ from the traditional wisdom about
this site. Even when we look only at the
thirteen calibrated AMS dates we have obtained from botanical remains, there is
a longer time span than the late fifteenth through sixteenth centuries. The dates come from two separate
laboratories, Beta Analytic and the Illinois Geological Survey and are in
general agreement about the time span.
Both the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries are well represented in
this sequence of dates, and a sixteenth century occupation less well documented
by the intercepts for our dates.
Moreover, the single date we now have from the west side is a fourteenth
century date. Thus, we cannot conclude
that most of Dragoo’s excavations were parts of the site occupied later than
the eastern area where our excavations have concentrated. Even with the presence of McFate Incised
ceramics, our present conclusion is that the site was occupied between AD 1250
and 1600.
Botanical
Analyses of the Johnston Site
Since 2006, we have had botanical analyses conducted on
samples by Dr. DeeAnn Wymer of Bloomsburg University and her students and Dr.
Jack Rossen of Ithaca College. Dr. Wymer
has examined 12 samples and Dr. Rossen has examined 11 samples. The samples show that the Johnston site
residents were farmers who relied on both tropical and native cultigens (maize,
gourd, bean, maygrass, erect knotweed).
Like Mary Rinn, the Johnston site is among the northernmost sites to
contain seeds of the “Eastern Agricultural Complex,” which was really a
horticultural or house gardening suite of plants. Nutshell and wild plant seeds are also
present in low frequencies (Rossen 2010).
Beans are relatively rare in archaeological sites in
Pennsylvania and seem to have arrived in Pennsylvania later than the other
domesticated plants like maize and gourds.
Two fragmentary beans were recovered from one of the post enclosed pits
at the Johnston site. Plants from the
Eastern Agricultural Complex were also recovered from the Johnston site and
include the seeds of two plants, maygrass and erect knotweed. Wymer and Stenhilper’s analysis found similar
results, although their analysis of material from the stockade trench and one
of the post enclosed pits identified additional species, like tobacco. Nutshell for these three features is
represented mostly by Carya (hickory)
and Juglandaceae (walnut family) specimens with some possible Quercus (oak acorn). As expected from a
substantial Late Prehistoric village site, maize (Zea mays) was present and was recovered from feature contexts. These specimens included fragmented kernels,
intact and partial cupules, minute cob fragments, glumes, and cob fragments with
attached cupules. A few carbonized seeds were recovered from these samples and
represent species in the fruit/berry, grass/weedy and cultivated categories
(see Table 7 Slide 30).
Each
year as we analyze more data from the Late Prehistoric Project sites, we gain
new insights on these settlements in Indiana County. This year, by combining data from excavations
to provide context, botanical analyses and AMS radiocarbon dates for the
botanicals, I believe we have begun to address some of the questions related to
the use of tropical domesticates (like maize, beans, and gourds), and the
relationship between these food sources and the major changes in climate that
occurred during the medieval warm period prior to A.D. 1300 and the following
“Little Ice Age” from A.D. 1300-1450.
To
that end, we now have botanical samples from 7 sites (36Wm477, 36In0002,
36In059, 36In362, 36In160, 36In026, and 36In29 are part of the IUP Late
Prehistoric investigation. We plan to
include eastern agricultural complex species as well as domesticates like
tobacco and continue dating maize from additional sites.
These
botanical analyses also show the connections between the sites and the ancient
forests in that the wood samples identified in the botanical analyses reflect
the composition of those forests. One of
the reasons we see the continued reuse of site locations is because these are
places that are not covered by thick ancient forests. Whether because of the natural setting or the
loss of trees due to lightning strikes, it seems likely that villages are
located again and again in the same locations because these were the locations
that did not have to be cleared.
The Indiana County
Frontier
Our initial interpretation of a frontier between these
two watersheds developed from several observations. The first is that previous
researchers such as Johnson and George have described the Late Woodland or Late
Prehistoric sites along the Conemaugh Blacklick and Crooked Creek as being part
of distinct cultural traditions. Sites along the Conemaugh Blacklick, like the
Johnson Site (36In2) and the Squirrel Hill Site have been identified as part of
the Monongahela Cultural Tradition found in southwestern Pennsylvania and
actually have been used to define one of the Monongahela Phases, the Johnston
Phase (AD 1450-1590) (George 1977; Johnson 2001). The Monongahela Tradition is
commonly referred to as part of the Late Prehistoric tradition which implies
that it is related to groups from the same time period to the west in the Ohio
Valley.
The Johnston Phase is also thought to be distinct from
other Monongahela phases in that it shows connections to the McFate Cultures
found in Northwestern Pennsylvania. The Crooked Creek sites are defined as Late
Woodland cultures and are thought to show a stronger connection to sites to the
north along the Allegheny River, especially the Fishbasket sites along Redbank
Creek excavated by Ken Burkett (see the Armstrong County blog) So we start with
a situation in which previous researchers have defined distinct cultural
traditions located about 20 miles apart (based on the distance between the main
streams).
Funding
to support this research has been provided by the Pennsylvania Historical and
Museum Commission, the Indiana University of Pennsylvania Anthropology
Department, IUP College of Humanities and Social Sciences, and University
Senate Research Program, the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education, and
the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and Federal Highway
Administration Transportation Enhancement Program.
Special thanks to the US Army Corps
of Engineers, Pittsburgh District, especially Deborah Campbell, Norrice King,
and Paul Toman for permission to investigate the Johnston Site in 2010. Special thanks are also made to the dozens of
IUP students who participated in field schools in 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008,
and 2010 and other IUP faculty and staff members including Dr. Philip Neusius
and Dr. Ben Ford for their assistance with various aspects of this project.
References Cited
Chairulli,
Beverly A.
2005 New Research on the Late Prehistoric
Cultures of Indiana County: The Carl Fleming
Site (36IN26). Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for
Pennsylvania Archaeology, Morgantown, Pennsylvania April 23.
2001 Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in Upland
Settings: An Analysis of Site Data in
Watershed D (Conemaugh River-Black Lick Creek). In Prehistoric
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Exempted Watersheds. Report prepared for the Pennsylvania Historical and
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Preliminary Report on the 2008
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District 2008 Excavations at the Johnston Site (36In2) Indiana County,
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Report on the 2006 Archaeological
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Archaeology, Allentown, PA.
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in the Central Allegheny Valley. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Pennsylvania
Archaeology
Deemer, Michael
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Alteration At The Johnston Site. A
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and Beverly A. Chiarulli
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For more information, visit PAarchaeology.state.pa.us or the Hall of Anthropology and Archaeology at The State Museum of Pennsylvania .
